Voluntary Service Programs and West Virginia's Economic Future

Voluntary Service Programs and West Virginia's Economic Future

Richard A. Ball

West Virginia's natural resources have served as the state's economic foundation for generations. However, although natural resources will continue to play an important role in West Virginia's economy, success in the increasingly competitive global economy largely depends on the state's ability to improve the condition of its transportation and environmental infrastructures (highways, bridges, locks and dams, and water supply and treatment systems) and the quality of its human resources (Dilger and Witt 1994). Although there is no panacea, this article argues that it may be possible to significantly improve the state's transportation and environmental infrastructures and the quality of its human resources through community service programs targeted especially for youth. Following a brief review of national and state service needs, this article outlines the history of national and community service programs. It then examines the national government's recent renewal of community service through a brief overview of the 1990 National and Community Service Act and West Virginia's Comprehensive Service Plan which was developed in response to that legislation. Finally, a number of policy recommendations are offered in light of West Virginia's response to the Community Service Act and the national government's recently enacted National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993.

National, Regional and State Needs

Global economic competition and technological innovations led to the "deindustrialization" of the national economy that has taken place over the past twenty years. The deindustrialization process has caused the United States to move rapidly toward a post-industrial, service oriented economy (Bluestone and Harrison 1982). The impact of the deindustrialization process on West Virginia was particularly harsh. Over the past decade, West Virginia's mining employment has been cut in half and manufacturing employment has been cut by 30 percent (KIoc 1994).

As the national economy reconfigured itself in light of new employment and production conditions and technological innovations, policy analysts pointed out that the nation's transportation and environmental infrastructures were in serious disrepair, with crumbling sewers, highways, bridges and schools and, unless corrected, would impede future prospects for economic growth. The national government responded by increasing funding for highway and bridge construction and repair and for the construction of wastewater treatment plants (Dilger 1989). Yet, despite the expenditure of over $250 billion over the past twenty years on transportation and environmental infrastructure projects, the United States continues to experience serious physical infrastructure problems. In West Virginia, for example, despite the expenditure of nearly $700 million annually on the state's 38,000-mile road system, about 60 percent of the paved roads have less than a good sufficiency rating, and approximately 3,000 of the state's 6,800 bridges need structural or geometric improvements (Martinelli and Eck 1994).

Even deeper "infrastructural" problems, however, spring from the degradation of the state's environment, including scarred hills and forests, vitiation of wildlife, and contamination of air and water. In West Virginia, gypsy moth infestation of forests and woodlots has become a continual pressing environmental problem. Drainage from industrial pollutants, along with chemical runoffs from coal and lumber sources, has jeopardized the state's ground water supply, which is now one of the most polluted in the nation (Frederick 1986). Sediment clogs streams and reservoirs and increases water purification costs and the potential of flooding. Because of water pollution, only 41 percent of West Virginia's streams and only about half of the lakes and reservoirs are capable of fully supporting their designated uses for either fishing or swimming, and many of the streams, lakes and reservoirs that do meet national water quality standards are now classified as threatened (Fletcher, McClung and Phipps 1994). As some policy analysts have pointed out, "Traditionally, water supply and wastewater treatment have been considered environmental issues, not as an integral part of an economic strategy designed to bring economic growth and jobs to the state ... [but] that must change" (Dilger 1994).

The quality of West Virginia's environment is crucial to the state's economic future. Research has shown, for example, that rustic rural settings, low population density, scenic beauty and abundance of natural resources are the foundations for development of tourism and outdoor activities within the state. Over halt of the tourism in West Virginia is related to outdoor recreation, with sightseeing, hiking, rafting and visiting state parks leading the list (Fletcher et al. 1994). Wildlife attracts over 80,000 nonresident hunters and fishermen to West Virginia annually, with over $220 million spent on wildlif e- related activity (West Virginia Department of Natural Resources 1982).

As mining and manufacturing jobs disappeared during the 1980s, West Virginia began making valiant attempts to shift to a more diversified, service-based economy, with a surprising expansion of new job opportunities in that sector (Bell Atlantic Research 1989). After health services (e.g., physicians and dentists), personal services (e.g., dry cleaners) and business services (e.g., advertising), tourism is already the state's fourth leading service-related industry. Yet, West Virginia's vast potential is still largely untapped. Although tourists spent approximately $1.2 billion in West Virginia in 1989, this was less than half as much as was spent in Kentucky, less than one-third what was spent in Maryland, less than onesixth as much as was spent in Ohio and Virginia, and less than one-seventh what was spent in Pennsylvania. Indeed, in spite of its scenic beauty and ideal geographic location, West Virginia still ranks in the bottom fifth of the 50 states in terms of income from tourism (Fletcher et al. 1994).

It is abundantly clear that West Virginia's economic progress rests to a considerable extent on the improvement of the state's physical infrastructure. However, even if the state's physical infrastructure problems are addressed successfully, the state's economic future still ultimately rests on the quality of its workforce because physical infrastructure and human resources combine to form the more general economic infrastructure upon which any economic system depends. As one of West Virginia's leading economists has pointed out:

"Economists learned long ago that the wealth of nations and states is not measured by their holdings of gold, or precious metals, but by the productive capacities, or human capital, of their people" (Hawley 1994).

Three factors that have a strong impact on the productivity (or competitiveness) of West Virginia's work force are its health, educational achievement, and safety. Productivity is impeded if the worker is ill, under-educated, or fears for his or her safety. Unfortunately, West Virginia's health status is ranked second worst in the nation, and 350,000 West Virginians are without medical insurance. Moreover, the cost of providing health care in West Virginia tends to be higher than in other states due to the under-utilization of hospital beds and expenses associated with serving a rural population (DeFrank and Hammock 1990). Also, West Virginia has one of the oldest populations in the nation. West Virginia, for example, is second only to Florida in the number of social security recipients per 1,000 population (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1990). Since the health care expenses of the elderly are higher than for the young, health care costs in West Virginia are likely to rise more rapidly than in other states.

Numerous studies have shown a strong relationship between educational attainment and worker productivity, earnings, and level of occupational entry. Moreover, the relationship between education and economic development is expected to become even more important in the future as technological innovations in the workplace require both management and labor to continually replace previously learned job skills with new ones (Ehrenberg and Smith 1991). For example, the structural changes taking place in the national economy are constantly increasing the earnings gap between those who are well-educated and those who are not (Bluestone 1990).

Yet, today, only 68 percent of West Virginia's adult population has a high school degree, ranking the state 46th in the nation, and West Virginia ranks 49th in the percentage of heads of households with a high school degree (U.S. Bureau of the Census 1991). Furthermore, only 11 percent of West Virginia's population aged 25 and older has completed college, the lowest completion rate in the United States.

Although West Virginia has earned an enviable reputation for its extremely low crime rate, public safety issues have assumed considerably more importance in recent years (Ball 1991a). In West Virginia, some of the most salient issues center around drug use, domestic violence, and the appearance of juvenile gangs. Many of these issues are compounded by the lack of recreational facilities for youth and the lack of both facilities and personnel for dealing with juvenile and adult offenders (Ball 1991 b).

As Dilger and Witt (1994) have pointed out in their recent volume, West Virginia in the 1990s: Opportunities for Economic Progress, recent approaches to economic development have begun to recognize that older strategies which relied on attracting industry through such competitive cost advantages as low taxes, relatively inexpensive labor, and a submissive stance on the part of local government are no longer viable due to technological developments in the international economy. Many foreign countries can undercut these concessions with still lower taxes, even cheaper labor, and perhaps no governmental restraints at all. Rather than to sink to the lowest common denominator, the United States should return to its traditional strength, which has always come from a healthy, well-educated and highly motivated population, the sort of human resource base which is even more crucial to success in a post-industrial world. Such an approach is reflected in the highly influential example offered by the 1992 Commission on the Future of the South (Dilger and Witt 1994), which built its economic development planning on achievement of the following primary objectives:

1 . Provide a nationally competitive education for all our children.

2. Mobilize resources to eliminate adult functional illiteracy.

3. Prepare a flexible, globally competitive work force.

4. Strengthen society as a whole by strengthening at-risk families.

5. Increase the economic development role of higher education.

6. Increase capacity to generate and use technology. Implement new economic development strategies aimed at homegrown industries.

8. Enhance natural and cultural resources.

9. Develop pragmatic leaders with a global vision.

10. Improve the structure and performance of state and local government.

This approach to economic development stresses a fundamental reform of education from elementary school through advanced degree programs. It emphasizes the development of technology transfer programs such as the one recently located at Wheeling Jesuit College and the development of venture capital programs. It stresses greater involvement of both for-profit and non-profit organizations in the private sector on the premise that programs developed in this way tend to be driven by demand rather than ideology or bureaucratic inertia, with competition and accountability built into the market structure. Above all, this approach makes its highest priority the development of a top-quality work force, which calls for a new educational view of our young people.

The Marginalization of Youth

Across the United States generally and in West Virginia particularly, youth have been hit the hardest by the economic and social changes of the past generation. Indeed, the process of cleinclustrialization has led to the I'marginalization" of youth, who now reach physical maturity much earlier but without eitherjobs or the optimistic visions of the past. One recent summary of research findings on 18 and 19-year-olds concludes that this generation of youth "knows less, cares less [and] votes less ... than young people in the past" (Oreskes 1990). Although it is difficult to quantify this change, one of the better efforts to measure the "social health" of youth found that index scores based on a combination of six measures of social disharmony (infant mortality, child abuse, children living in poverty, teenage suicide, teenage drug abuse, and high school drop-outs) rose from an above-average "social health" score of 68 in 1970 to an even higher level of 72 in 1973 only to decline precipitously to a score of only 37 by the beginning of the 1990s (Miringoff 1989).

Those familiar with these problems tend to agree that the most significant needs of U.S. youth today revolve around the search for self-identity, development of a set of personal values, creation of adult competencies in decision-making and problem-solving, growth of interaction skills, establishment of emotional independence from parents, development of a capacity to balance peer acceptance and personal achievement, and opportunities to explore different attitudes and activities (Dryfoos 1990). More particularly, U.S. youth need practical citizenship and applied technical education and a sense of hope combined with a stronger work ethic, greater consciousness of the value of public service, and a developed sense of social responsibility and "giving something back" (Buchanan 1989).

West Virginia's youth face especially serious needs (WV Department of Education 1992). The state ranks second nationally in youth unemployment and fourth nationally with its high percentage of births to teenagers (20 percent). It also ranks fourth in terms of its high proportion of children and youth living in poverty (1 in 4), and half of all children born in the state are born into poverty conditions. A generation ago two-thirds of the state's school children lived in traditional, two-parent families. Today, this figure has fallen to about 50 percent. Because of a lack of medical insurance, approximately one-third of all West Virginia children do not see physicians. Although an estimated 30,000 West Virginia preschoolers are at risk of developmental delay, only 850 of the 7,000 developmentally delayed infants or toddlers are being served by early intervention programs, and Head Start programs serve only 20 percent of the 20,000 eligible children in educational need (WV Department of Education 1992).

West Virginia's economic future depends especially heavily upon a new strategic plan for youth development. In most other states, demographic change drives economic opportunity. This situation is reversed in West Virginia. The lack of economic opportunities in West Virginia has led to an exodus of young, vigorous workers while discouraging the in-migration of productive employees. "Consequently, West Virginia's economic strategies, whether aimed at upgrading the infrastructure of highways, bridges and schools, or more directly aimed at inducing businesses to locate within the state, should be designed to induce prime age workers to remain in or relocate into the state" (Hawley 1994).

The National and Community Service Concept

This litany of national and state needs is familiar to many, and much of the prevalent frustration springs from lack of fiscal resources which makes it difficult to deal with them. West Virginia, in particular, often seems to be caught in a vicious cycle with no way out. Where is the state to find the resources necessary to deal with its infrastructure problems and develop the capacities of its youth when West Virginia's tax capacity is the second lowest in the United States (U.S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations 1993)?

Part of the answer may be in systematically planned community service. In Arkansas, for example, which has the third lowest tax capacity in the nation, 175,816 citizens donated 4,739,229 hours of community service in 1986. If they had been compensated according to the dollar value set for each job, they would have cost that state over $66 million, an expense that would have absorbed the taxes from 25,054 new jobs paying $15,000 each (University of Arkansas Division of Business Studies 1988). It is little wonder that when Governor Clinton was elected President he announced his intention to push for a national service program.

Faced with overwhelming problems and without the fiscal resources to solve them, Americans have a long history of turning to community service, whether compulsory or voluntary (Ellis and Noyes 1990). The first compulsory, nonmilitary national service was mandatory for conscientious objectors to the Civil War under the Lincoln Administration. They were required to serve as hospital workers and teachers of freed slaves (Moskos 1988). Perhaps the most influential philosophical justification for either compulsory or voluntary service programs came when William James (1910) pleaded for youth national service programs as means of building patriotism, strength of character and social solidarity. He termed such service, "The Moral Equivalent of War." In James'view, participation in national, state or community service programs should be an expected part of every young person's coming-of-age.

Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal of the 1930s used the concept of national service to combine infrastructure improvement with youth development. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), for example, enrolled nearly three million young men in forest and park camps, including 66 in West Virginia (Harr 1991). Two-thirds of the state parks in West Virginia were built by the CCC, which planted 2 billion trees, constructed 126,000 miles of minor roads, and improved 40 million acres of farmland nationally (Janowitz 1983). The CCC's success in both youth development and infrastructure enhancement led to the creation of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and the National Youth Administration (NYA), which together employed nearly 14 million workers, some 30 percent of whom were youths between 16 and 24 years of age (National Governors'Association 1989).

During the 1960s the Peace Corps became a major symbol of service for American youth. In addition to the Peace Corps' international work, ACTION, the federal domestic volunteer agency, enrolls 500,000 volunteers operating in Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), the Foster Grandparents Program (FGP), the Retired Senior Volunteer Program (RSVP), the Senior Companion Program (SCP), the Student Community Service Program (SCS), and the Action Drug Alliance. Services performed by ACTION participants has been assessed at nearly twice the value of its cost.

The United States is one of the few western nations without a formal "school-to-work transition" program (Olson 1990). As a result, the transition process from school to work in the United States is widely regarded as the worst in the industrialized world (Starr, Curry and Ball 1991). Most secondary schools in the United States do not fully prepare students for employment. Despite some recent progress, apprenticeship programs remain inadequate and students generally have little "real life" experience with adult work roles. In West Virginia, the transition from school to work is made more difficult by the state's weak economy and its rural nature. This may help to explain why West Virginia's youth have a much higher than average probability of having mental and physical health problems. Another challenge to our youth is seen in the second leading cause of their deaths-suicide (West Virginia Human Resources Association 1990).

Americans have supported the concept of national and community service programs in the past, whether voluntary or compulsory. A 1966 Gallup Poll found that 72 percent of the public favored requiring all young men to give two years of either military or nonmilitary service, and a 1987 Gallup Poll showed that 83 percent of the public backed voluntary service programs for youth, with 55 percent willing to make such service mandatory (Starr et al. 1991). Moreover, 38 million Americans (nearly 1 in 5) did some volunteer work in the year ending May 1990, with the largest proportion (37 percent) working through churches and religious organizations and the second largest group (15 percent) working with schools or other education programs (Starr et al. 1991).

It should be noted that even among proponents there are different visions of national and community service. Some see it primarily as a way to promote civic virtue among middle-class youth whom they perceive as apathetic, self-centered and in need of discipline. Others see such service primarily as a means of integrating disadvantaged, low-income youth into the labor force and therefore stress programs that offer educational, counseling and employment opportunities. The thrust of this article is to urge that national and community service programs, especially as they apply to West Virginia, be considered at least partly in terms of a much larger framework of socioeconomic development. Such an approach is not intended to blunt the idealism involved, but rather to show how citizens helping one another help themselves.

Of course, there is the opposite view. Some oppose volunteerism in any form, concerned that free labor could displace workers or undercut wages. Some advocate voluntary government programs but demand that the participants be paid at or near the market rate, opposing minimum wage payments on the grounds that such programs represent the exploitation of vulnerable youth. Others advocate compulsory national service, perhaps along the German model, where youth are conscripted but given a choice of either military or social service.

Some proponents who support individualized volunteerism oppose state or federal programs because they are suspicious of government involvement. Some support either compulsory or voluntary service programs only if they are focused on their favorite problem. Still others who favor government programs because of their "character-building" effect on youth support unpaid programs vigorously but oppose remuneration on the grounds that the ideal of volunteerism as self-sacrifice for community and country is degraded by stipends of any sort. Low-income youth, of course, are less likely to participate in non-paid programs because they need income to get along. Indeed, experience shows that even with minimum wage payments, low-income participants are often forced to abandon the programs suddenly when economic needs arise at home, an outcome that not only adds to their frustration and discouragement but also disrupts the programs and reduces their effectiveness.

The 1990 National and Community Service Act

On taking office in January 1989, President Bush responded to the rising chorus of support for expanding national and community service programs by establishing the White House Office of National Service, the first office in the White House devoted exclusively to encouraging community service. The Bush Administration also backed creation of the Points of Light Foundation in 1990, with much of its focus aimed at the leaders of corporations and public organizations in the hope that they would mobilize their members for community service. The maJor turning point, however, came on October 24, 1990, when the U.S. Congress passed the $287 million National and Community Service Act (Public Law 101-610, as amended).

The Act created the Commission on National and Community Service, governed by a Board of Directors, and provided funding for a three-year period. Continuing political struggles over the exact nature of the Commission's mission, however, delayed implementation until mid-1 992. The Commission ultimately focused its efforts on (1) encouraging promising programs of community service by recognizing their achievements and encouraging their replication through grants, clearinghouses and technical assistance, (2) supporting development of coalitions and stimulating talented people through training, conferences and awards, and (3) guiding the development of a community service infrastructure, in part by transferring good ideas and practices rapidly to organizations that could use them and bringing together diverse organizations. Because possible grantees differed so much in their specific needs and resources, and because volunteerism seems to depend upon grassroots support rather than top-down planning, the Commission emphasized that comprehensive service plans seeking funding under the National and Community Service Act be tailored to the unique problems of each state.

Subtitle B, Part 1 of the Act established Serve-America, a program funding schools or community-based agencies that involved school-aged youth and adult volunteers in the schools. It was allocated $16.3 million. Subtitle B, Part 2 established the Higher Education Innovative Projects to explore new ways to integrate service into college curricula by supporting model programs on campus, developing faculty and volunteer training programs, and involving students in community service to complement their course of study. It was allocated $5.2 million. Subtitle C established the $21.5 million American Conservation and Youth Service Corps Program. It was designed to involve young people from widely different backgrounds in innovative projects directly meeting community needs. It focused on teenagers and young adults, who received job and skill training, living allowances, and scholarships. The program also included special corps members, such as senior citizens, who could provide special skills. Finally, $20.1 million was made available to fund eight demonstration projects under Subtitle D, which established the National and Community Service Programs to engage individuals aged 17 and older in fulltime or part-time service, with receipt of education or housing benefits upon service completion.

The West Virginia Comprehensive Service Plan

In response to the National and Community Service Act of 1990, West Virginia's Department of Education developed a Comprehensive Service Plan called "Every Mountaineer a Volunteer!" It consisted of a Serve America component designated as "Mountaineer Pride," a Higher Education Innovative Projects for Community Service component termed "Mountaineer Action," an American Conservation and Youth Service Corps component called "Mountaineer Green," and a National and Community Service component called "Mountaineer 2000." West Virginia identified its principal goals as:

• improving low-income medical assistance

• expanding employment and employability skills training

• coordinating literacy training

• promoting environmental improvement programs

• increasing the college-going rate

• eliminating drug distribution and abuse among youth

• improving self-esteem among poverty/disadvantaged youth and adults

On June 8, 1992, the Commission on National and Community Service announced 153 grants totaling $63 million. West Virginia requested nearly $14 million for the three-year period and was granted approximately $1.2 million to proceed with the first year of its Comprehensive Service Plan. This funding has revitalized many existing voluntary service programs in the state and has enabled West Virginia to take a leading role in several new, major social service experiments. Because of its socioeconomic needs and the nature of the Comprehensive Service Plan designed to meet them, West Virginia was singled out as one of eight "leader states" in school-based community service demonstration projects for the United States.

West Virginia's Comprehensive Service Plan called for the Governor's Cabinet on Families and Children to take a leading role in coordinating a special program aimed at eliminating barriers to service in the 25 West Virginia counties designated as having large populations of low-income individuals. Created by the Caperton Administration in 1991, the Cabinet leads a statewide initiative for planning and implementing a community-based service delivery system, and it had already funded competitive programs in ten counties even before the Comprehensive Service Plan was implemented. Because barriers to service include lack of experience, lack of information, and even lack of energy, the Cabinet cooperates closely with "Operation Strong Mountaineer," the West Virginia University Extension Service program which sponsors youth camps, establishes volunteer networks and develops nutritional programs.

As part of the effort to discover and train new leaders, leadership training for community service was added to two key, statewide training activities, the Governor's Honors Academy (an annual hallmark summer event for students in the public sector) and the Governor's Summer Youth Enhancement Programs (which target basic skills training in 48 of the 55 counties during a four-week period in the summer). West Virginia's Department of Education's Division of Technical and Adult Education Services also established a new leadership training complement for student organizations at the 63 vocational-technical and adult education sites, following models already developed by the Vocational Industrial Clubs of America and the Technology Student Association.

With the assistance of the West Virginia University Extension Service, the Advisory Board of "Every Mountaineer a Volunteer!" coordinated a statewide assessment of community service involvement to provide a data base to help generate additional volunteer service hours, published a Resource Guide and adopted a variety of recognition programs. The Board put special emphasis on recognizing the accomplishments of a number of community service projects already in existence, such as Adopt-a-Highway, Adopt-a-Dump, Adopt-a-Stream, and Foster Grandparents.

Three programs, Project Teach, the Parent Incentive Program, and the Credit for Community Service programs developed by the West Virginia Board of Education, were also identified as programs having the potential to generate significant numbers of new volunteers. Project Teach encourages local business volunteers to share their experiences with students in a teaching setting. The Parent

Incentive Program provides a variety of incentives to build parental involvement in the schools. The Credit for Community Service programs allows schools to extend partial credit for community service when the volunteer involvement is related directly to course work.

The efforts to encourage both public and private institutions to volunteer their resources have been relatively successful. The West Virginia Council of Churches, the Charleston-Wheeling Diocese, and the West Virginia Chamber of Commerce all supported, in principle, the Comprehensive Service Plan. Most of the state's 1,250 primary, elementary, middle and senior high schools committed themselves to providing human, physical, and monetary resources to promote and improve schoolbased community service projects. The Presidents of Concord College, West Virginia Wesleyan and West Virginia University joined together to create the "West Virginia College Compact" which encourages student and faculty volunteers to work in high-priority counties, and more than a dozen additional institutions of higher education soon indicated plans to join. The Young Lawyers Association and members of the West Virginia State Supreme Court of Appeals provided help in developing viable community service projects aimed at reducing drug abuse among state youth and the West Virginia Microcomputer Educational Network (WVMEN) assisted the Advisory Board in its effort to coordinate the various community service programs. WVMEN has a statewide telecommunications network with 86 microcomputer local area network labs in secondary schools and vocationaltechnical centers. Anyone with a computer and modem can access the Network and communicate with others in the state, nationally and internationally. The Network, which already has nearly 5,000 users, can access over 30 conference centers within the state and leave electronic mail. Through its Bulletin Board System, it began to tie together all the projects funded under the National and Community Service Act of 1990, providing for program coordination and sharing of community service techniques.

Major Programs Under the 1990 National and Community Service Act

Funded at approximately $250,000, West Virginia's "Mountaineer Pride" program developed a Serve West Virginia Network based on the Governor's Cabinet on Children and Families' Family Resource Networks, targeting rural, low-income counties. School-based regional demonstration sites were established for each of the eight Regional Educational Service Agency (RESA) areas, along with four Regional Training Sites, one each at Camp Horseshoe, Cedar Lakes, and Jackson's Mill, and campus-based -training site at Concord College. Capital High School, located in Kanawha County, was designated as the central Service-Learning Institute.

As part of the effort to raise the state's literacy rate, each of the eight demonstration sites implemented "Read Aloud West Virginia," a program funded by the Beneclum Foundation. Through this program, student volunteers read to young children in elementary schools, daycare centers, homeless shelters, hospitals, low-income housing projects and community centers. The readers are K-1 2 students who are trained bycollege students provided through the Campus Compact. From the beginning, West Virginia's community service school-based program depended heavily upon a coordinated effort on the part of Concord College, the Future Farmers of America, the Future Homemakers of America, and a Serve West Virginia Association, which was formed as an umbrella organization for all state entities having an interest in youth service.

West Virginia's "Mountaineer Green" program was funded at approximately $2 million during 1993 and 1994. The West Virginia Citizens Conservation Corps (WVCCC), a private, nonprofit agency, provided the administrative umbrella directing the first pilot project, operating in McDowell County through the McDowell County Conservation Corps. McDowell County was selected because it epitomized the problems outlined earlier, having at the time an unemployment rate of more than 20 percent, a dropout rate of 23 percent and a teen pregnancy rate of 33 percent (WV Department of Education 1992).

WVCCC obviated the need for a new state bureaucracy and had the added advantage that it could accept funding from many sources, including both public money and support from corporations and private foundations. It provided technical assistance for local corps and solicited service projects. The Act required that local corps be developed with the full knowledge and, when possible, with the assistance of local labor organizations whose members are engaged in similar work, and they were required to meet national standards set by the National Association of Service and Conservation Corps (NASCC). Among other things, this meant that they were required to recruit economically and educationally disadvantaged youth, youth with disabilities, youth with limited basic skills or learning disabilities, youth with limited English proficiency, homeless youth, and youth in foster care who are becoming too old for continued foster care.

West Virginia's "Mountaineer 2000" program was not funded. Designed to complement HELP (Help Educate Loving Parents), a program already in place in 33 West Virginia counties, the Mountaineer 2000 program was designed to promote leadership roles among families that are below the national poverty level with special attention on the developmental needs of teenage parents.

By the beginning of the second phase in the implementation of West Virginia's Comprehensive Service Plan in July 1993, new voluntary service legislation was moving through Congress. The Clinton Administration was taking a somewhat different tack than the Bush Administration, stressing a youth program called AmeriCorps, which would be a cornerstone of the new National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993.

Abt Associates, an independent social research corporation in Massachusetts, was contracted by the national government to evaluate service programs under the National and Community Service Act of 1990. Although its program evaluations did not specifically target West Virginia, the projects outlined here have established that West Virginia can enlist wide support for a comprehensive, statewide, voluntary service plan. They have also produced a badly-needed data base, considerable agreement on general directions, vastly improved coordination, and a much more integrated planning network.

The National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993

On September 21, 1993, President Clinton signed the new National and Community Service Trust Act. It established the Corporation for National Service which replaced the Commission on National and Community Service. The focus here is upon AmeriCorps, a three year, $300 million program that provides stipends and educational awards to youth who engage in community service.

Any citizen or resident alien over 17 years old, or over 16 years old in the case of youth corps programs, is eligible to participate in AmeriCorps. An individual will be eligible to serve for one or two terms of service either full-time or part-time. A full-time term is 1,700 hours over 9 months to a year. A part-time term is 900 hours over two to three years with a correspondingly lower education award. Stipends must be at least equal to the VISTA living allowance of $7,400 annually, roughly equal to the minimum wage rate. Programs must also provide a basic health insurance care policy for participants not otherwise covered by a policy. Upon conclusion of their term of service, participants qualify for a National Service Education Award equal to $4,725 per term for full-time service or half that amount for part-time service.

The Corporation allocates 1/3 of its available funds to state commissions through a population-based formula, 1/3 competitively to state commissions for their distribution through a competitive process, and 1/3 based on its own criteria. West Virginia submitted its formal indication of intention to apply for federal funding under the Act and received $1.3 million for FY 1994-1995.

The new legislation required both the Corporation and the various states to establish specific priorities for programs to be funded within the areas of (1) educational, (2) environmental, (3) public safety and (4) human needs. The new West Virginia Commission for National and Community Service, established to oversee these efforts, proceeded by holding 11 public forums around the state in order to develop a public consensus on these priorities. Two major goals were identified within each area of emphasis.

West Virginia's educational goals under the Act focus on school readiness and school success. School readiness efforts will focus on furthering early childhood development. Service volunteers will also work in programs aimed at improving the educational achievement of school-aged children through mentor/tutor plans and in coordinating service learning for K-12 students in the schools.

West Virginia's environmental goals under the Act focus on improving neighborhood environments by reducing community environmental hazards and improving the natural environment by conserving, restoring and sustaining natural habitats.

West Virginia's public safety goals focus on crime control and crime prevention. Crime control programs will employ volunteers to improve criminal justice service and victim service. Crime prevention programs will stress reducing the incidence of violence. The Commission expects volunteers to be of considerable assistance in providing assistance to crime victims and in involving other youth in crime prevention.

West Virginia's human needs goals focus on health and home needs. Service volunteers working with health needs are to help in providing independent living assistance and home and community-based health care, at locations such as community health clinics or through home visits. Those working more directly on home needs will be helping with renovation and rehabilitation of neighborhood housing and helping people who are homeless.

The Commission issued its call for proposals for National Service AmeriCorps grants in March 1994 and conducted four technical assistance workshops around the state during April 1994. It encouraged programs with a strong training component and a view of both participants and recipients of community service as people with resources (not just needs). Intergenerational programs that bring people of different ages together and have a strong plan for recognition of participants were especially encouraged.

General Policy Recommendations

Those experienced with service programs agree that the most critical factor in determining the nature of the service to be performed is the nature of the volunteer population itself (Danzig and Szanton 1986, Moskos 1988). To the extent that there is a philosophical conflict, programs should be formulated in terms of the needs, capabilities and attitudes of the volunteer population rather than the pet projects of those influencing programs or projects seeking merely to further their own objectives while reducing labor costs.

This will necessitate more attention to procedures for surveying the needs and determining the capabilities of potential volunteers. Too often, the adults designing programs for youth fail to appreciate the immense distance between their own socialization and the life experiences

of today's youngsters, who do not share, for example, much of the traditional optimism so long characteristic of Americans (Danzig and Szanton 1986; Buchanan 1989). Such surveys may be especially important to (1) provide an understanding of the volunteer's motivations, (2) alert supervisors to potential problems and (3) provide a basis for assessing developmental change.

Fortunately, there is actually much less conflict between economic priorities and youth development than some imagine, especially if one takes a more contemporary approach to economic development, which goes much deeper than a concentration on "attracting new industries." The newer approaches to economic development recognize that youth development is a major priority. It is no accident that the Commission on the Future of the South listed as its first four economic development objectives:

• provision for an educational approach that would allow our youth to compete more effectively,

• development of programs to eliminate functional illiteracy,

• preparation of a flexible work force, and

• strengthening of at-risk families.

Voluntary service programs can play a central role in realizing each of these objectives. If community service driven programs are to succeed in furthering the personal development of service volunteers, they must provide for social, educational and career counseling aimed at development of life skills. Time should be set aside for them to reflect on their experiences in group sessions (Moskos 1988). Personal journals should be considered as part of program requirements to encourage participants to think through their personal reactions to their experiences and learn more about themselves (Ellis and Noyes 1990).

Programs should consider policies that demonstrate to participants the state's commitment to the program and to the program's participants. Thus, for example, the West Virginia Citizens' Conservation Corps encourages programs to cooperate closely with the West Virginia Job Coordinating Council established under the Job Partnership Act and with the Governor's Summer Youth Employment Program. Programs that are developing job skills can arrange to have qualified participants certified through the West Virginia Department of Education's vocational training programs, which also awards academic credits for competencies developed. In these and other ways, participants gain an added sense of accomplishment and the state gains a larger pool of West Virginians with certified job skills, which is of such importance for attracting economic opportunities.

Once it is decided that youth development must take priority over projects that concentrate on using participants as underpaid labor to accomplish other objectives, the family and the school emerge as the key institutional foci. Research has shown that even in a highly technological society, the crucible of child development remains the family (Benokraitis 1993). Research has also shown again and again that success in school has less to do with factors under the control of the schools themselves than with the socioeconomic stability and motivation provided by a student's family life (Ballantine 1989).

Yet contemporary families can no longer be self-sufficient units, even with respect to child-rearing (Dizard and Gadlin 1990). Most new parents today are forced to learn largely by trial and error. The economic pressures on young families are overwhelming, with the projected cost of raising a child to age eighteen at over $100,000, a figure that doubles if the child goes to college (Family Economics Review 1989). Our economy now virtually requires young mothers to enter the work force as soon as possible, with the result that half of all nine-year-olds are already "latchkey" children who are left on their own after school (U.S. Women's Bureau 1989). One recent survey showed that two-thirds of the parents in the United States would like not only assistance but also more time to devote to child-rearing (Snell 1990), and there is no reason to believe that parents in West Virginia feel any differently.

Even with all the problems they face, however, families have traditional strengths that can be found nowhere else, and they offer perhaps the most crucial social resource available for educational improvement and economic development (Kain 1990). The Appalachian family has been a particularly strong institution and has long been recognized as one of the focal "premises for planning in Appalachia" (Ball 1974). West Virginia is in an excellent position to take advantage of this insight, which suggests that voluntary service programs focus on reaching at-risk families through the Family Resource Networks that are already being put in place.

Special Attention to Selection Criteria

Other questions center around selection criteria. In the case of unpaid volunteers, part of the problem is that a bad volunteer is worse than none at all. "Bad" volunteers fall into many different categories. They include those who are not suited for the work, those who tend to get in the way, those who require so much supervision that they interfere with the necessary functions of the staff, and those whose constant complaints or "bad attitudes" demoralize the other volunteers.

Should "volunteers" be required to participate, as is the case in an increasing number of school-based service programs, where participation may be a requirement for a particular class or even for graduation? Such programs are already facing court challenges, and there seem to be many legal grounds for these challenges. If such requirements are eventually upheld, will they do more harm by undermining the concept of volunteerism than they do good in other terms? At the very least, those designing programs might designate different categories of "volunteers," with different sorts of rewards and recognition.

As indicated earlier, economic development strategies that target volunteers toward environmental programs can be especially useful. At the same time, however, it must be remembered that the much-praised Civilian Conservation Corps of the 1930s enrolled males only, and it is worth noting that the female participation rate in the largest such program in the United States, the California Conservation Corps, is only 24 percent. Here as elsewhere, institutionalized gender discrimination must be overcome.

Special attention to the potential for gender discrimination in volunteer service programs becomes even more important when one realizes that one way of attacking West Virginia's low labor participation rate is to focus on increasing female participation. Partly as a function of changing attitudes, the state's labor participation rate for females rose from 36.5 percent in 1980 to 43.5 percent in 1990, but it still remains far below national levels (Hawley 1994). Although it could be argued that "maleoriented" service programs such as forestry work could be balanced by others enrolling an equal number of females in "female-oriented" programs such as nursing assistance, this sort of solution simply perpetuates gender stereotypes, which usually operate to the economic disadvantage of women in the work force.

With priority placed on youth development and careful attention to the criteria for selection of program participants, the extent to which community service assigned to youthful volunteers can be made to develop marketable skills is still an open question. To a certain extent, even the "make-work" characteristic of some programs serves to provide valuable experience to youth-but only up to a point. If, for example, programs are to foster leadership capabilities and decision-making skills, participants must be selected carefully so that they can be given real and significant responsibilities. One way to do this is with a hierarchy of volunteers, where those with more experience and expertise supervise those with less but are, in turn, supervised by permanent staff members. Another way is to focus on using the programs to train the participants for the skilled jobs available in the modern economy.

Specific Program Recommendations

Having acknowledged the potential for gender bias, it is important to stress the diversity of possible service programs devoted toward the environment. The various forums conducted by the West Virginia Commission on National and Community Service have identified some priorities including river cleanup, construction of sewage systems, and water testing, along with strip mine reclamation and improvement of trails, parks and playgrounds, More specific programs can be directed toward badly-needed projects such as control of gypsy moth infestation.

One of West Virginia's most pressing problems, with serious implications for family life, has to do with the lack of adequate, affordable housing. Programs aimed at restoration of abandoned buildings, repair, renovation and weatherization of existing housing, or assistance in construction of new housing or community shelters could make a real contribution.

Recycling programs offer an excellent opportunity for both J . ob creation and youth development. The most recent economic development study dealing with solid waste disposal specifically recommended attracting recycling industries to the state, assisting local industries in using or increasing their use of recycled materials, assisting local entrepreneurs to start up manufacturing businesses such as cellulose insulation plants making insulation out of recycled newspapers and boric acid, and expanding the market for recyclable goods by requiring state agencies to buy recyclable goods and creating a regional market for them through an interstate compact (Clayton, Dilger and Sayre 1994). Currently, West Virginia landfills more of its solid wastes than do most other states, yet compared with incineration and land-filling, recycling offers more permanent employment and is cheaper, due to its much lower capital requirements. In Vermont, for example, recycling operations generate between 550 and 2,000 jobs (depending on size and kind of facility) for each 1 million tons of materials they process, incinerators produce only 150 to 1,000 jobs and landfills only 50 to 360 jobs per million tons of material (Renner 1992). Service programs focused on recycling may actually foster growth in the recycling industry at the same time as they train recyclers.

Service industries in general, and health services in particular, offer West Virginia the greatest potential for combining job creation and youth development. As indicated previously, the service sector has been growing while mining and manufacturing employment has leveled off far below where it was just ten years ago. Today, the single largest service industry in West Virginia is health services (including physician's and dentist's offices, medical laboratories, and nursing homes), with 2,590 establishments accounting for 30 percent of total service employment and 40 percent of total service wages (Culp 1991). Because of the state's aging demographics, job opportunities in health-related services are expected to continue to expand. Service providers now at work in health care programs can be of considerable help in designing voluntary programs for youth to ensure that this sector of our economy has a ready supply of skilled workers prepared for the jobs of the future.

Some may complain that many of these jobs will not pay as well as many have in the past, but they are neglecting some of the major possibilities in high-tech and high-wage fields such as software development, where West Virginia has real advantages. Still, average annual salaries in mining and manufacturing are nearly twice those in the wholesale/retail trade and service industries. Unfortunately, the realities of international economic competition have made the choice not one between developing high-paying mining/manufacturing jobs and low-paying service jobs, but one between diversifying across hightech, professional, managerial and other high-wage service jobs along with relatively low-wage service jobs or not having any jobs at all.

A more farsighted set of policies might concentrate more attention on use of service volunteers in "wellness" campaigns designed to reduce the need for health care by focusing on prevention. Thus, for example, nutrition is a key to youth development and, in the long run, to a healthy work force. Service volunteers have a long history of effective work not only in disseminating nutrition information but also in assisting extension agents and others in providing families with access to healthy foods (Ellis and Noyes 1990).

Many opportunities exist for employment of volunteer service providers in public safety programs. During the past five years, for example, this author has placed more than 150 college students as interns in law enforcement positions, prosecutor's offices, public defender's offices, probation departments, magistrate's courts, drug treatment centers, rape crisis centers, mental health centers and correctional institutions in seven West Virginia counties. Service volunteers can make a significant contribution to public education campaigns dealing with issues such as sentencing policy and jail overcrowding (Ball 1991a), which have been identified as priorities by the public forums conducted by the West Virginia Commission for National and Community Service in early 1994. They can also make a real contribution in helping to staff group homes and youth service centers, which face serious financial problems in West Virginia (Ball 1991 b).

Programs using service volunteers in public safety programs, however, should proceed with special caution. Liability issues must be confronted whenever volunteers are used. The recent movement to assign volunteers to assist with implementation of community policing offers one example where liability issues must be addressed (Greene and Mastrofski 1988). West Virginia has identified community policing as one possible priority for AmeriCorps participants, who would assist in the new emphasis on crime prevention and in "peacekeeping" functions such as prevention and control of domestic violence (McGinnis 1993). Because community policing relies heavily on foot patrols, home visits, neighborhood watch programs and citizen surveys designed to involve the community in setting policy, it offers special opportunities for using volunteers (Bayley 1988). At the same time, however, it also involves these volunteers in disputes that sometimes pose personal hazards and subject supervisors to liability suits.

Whatever the goals of service programs, it is clear that the keys to success lie in motivation and supervision. Although it is often assumed that volunteers absorb their experiences by social osmosis, just by "being there," research suggests that nothing is further from the truth. They should be provided with specific orientation materials and programs designed to give an overview of organizational philosophy, policies and procedures, with special attention to the reasons behind rules. They should be subjected to periodic performance assessments designed to provide feedback on their own performance and further insight into the development of job skills and interpersonal relations. Perhaps, above all, they need to engage in structured reflection on their service experiences. Increased self-awareness and ability to integrate new experiences will be considerably enhanced by strategies such as the use of weekly journals, seminars and organized group discussions which explore and analyze the ongoing work (Moskos 1988).

Beyond the selection of the volunteers and the targeting and supervision of their services, crucial policy problems center around program coordination. Voluntary programs tend to be autonomous creations by energetic, independent community activists or organizations such as churches, fire departments and youth clubs, accustomed to going their own way, in some cases driven by federal mandates (Ellis and Noyes 1990). The result is considerable duplication of effort on the one hand with major needs going unmet on the other (Moskos 1988). The West Virginia Department of Education has reported that its principal discovery during the early development and implementation of the Comprehensive Service Plan was the plethora of uncoordinated local, state and federal programs.

It is also important that "turf battles" be avoided or negotiated with great care if coordinated service programs are to achieve their aims. At the same time, it must be remembered that the energy for voluntary service springs from grassroots empowerment. Centralized planning and careful coordination is vital, but this must be accomplished with a light touch. Heavy-handed imposition from above is a sure way to stifle local incentive and innovation.

It is increasingly acknowledged that national service will achieve clearer impacts and a stronger identity if programs can be concentrated in a few key areas without undermining state flexibility and local control in the guidance of programs (Moskos 1988). This is important for political visibility and public support. The McDowell County efforts described earlier offer an excellent example of this strategy. Unless there is some effort to develop a few highly visible exemplars, the most effective voluntary service activities tend by their very nature to blend into the community in such a way as to almost disappear.

Any program employing service volunteers should devote considerable attention to providing the volunteers themselves with various sources of public recognition, a tactic that publicizes the impact of their efforts while building a sense of pride and accomplishment (Danzig and Szanton 1986). Such recognition tends to assure a steady stream of recruits (Janowitz 1983). It also tends to reinforce and strengthen the leadership stature of the more experienced volunteers (Moskos 1988).

Evaluation Recommendations

This article has outlined a number of specific possibilities for a double-barreled attack on the problems facing West Virginia. By combining the development of the state's physical infrastructure and human resources with a community service approach focusing on youth as a resource, West Virginia's problems may become more easily managed. Perhaps the most important part of any such program in its initial stages, however, is systematic evaluation. If West Virginia is to derive maximum benefit from the national and community service movement, it must be willing to subject general programs and specific projects alike to the most rigorous assessment possible.

Part of the evaluation problem lies in the fact that national and community service is currently defined in terms of multiple objectives held by many different supporters (Moskos 1988). It is crucial that this reality be highlighted in any effort to evaluate the success or failure of specific programs.

An ideal evaluation of community service programs should include the following five, multiple criteria: effort, effectiveness, cost effectiveness, impact and process (Ball 1977). Effort represents input, including time, energy and resources, which can also be defined as program cost. Effectiveness has to do with program output, which can be defined in terms of indices such as numbers of trees planted or number of clients who achieved literacy. It should also be assessed in terms of more subjective factors such as client and volunteer satisfaction, performance ratings by supervisors and changes in self-concepts, work attitudes, and attitudes toward community service, some of which may be even more important than the more tangible outcomes. It is also important to learn what kinds of volunteers and organizations are most likely to achieve maximum effectiveness to improve placement matching over time.

Cost effectiveness may be the most difficult criterion to measure, because it refers to both input-to-output ratio and to costs proportionate to costs of alternatives, including doing things differently or doing nothing. No matter how effective a service program appears, there may be a better way. If possible, program evaluation should determine what sorts of volunteers are most cost-effective and locate points of diminishing returns where the addition of more volunteers to a program may be less cost-effective than their placement elsewhere.

In the case of national and community service programs, it must be recognized that appropriate measures of cost-effectiveness must include the costs involved if nothing is done, including the direct and indirect costs of neglecting the developmental needs of youth. For example, a 1992 national survey of police conducted by West Virginia University and the National Institute of Justice concluded that the proliferation of gangs is due in large part to the "marginalization" of youth resulting from unemployment (Curry, Ball, Fox and Stone 1992). It has been estimated that a one percent rise in unemployment for those 15-24 years of age leads to a six to eight percent rise in prostitution, forcible rape, auto theft and homicide and a two to four percent rise in robbery and assault (Starr et al. 1991).

In addition to considerations of effort, effectiveness and cost-effectiveness, the evaluation of the impact of service programs in West Virginia must move to another level, developing measures of output proportionate to need. Even an extremely effective program may be nothing more than a "drop in the bucket" when the problems are enormous. Thus, impact must be assessed as a function of output relative to (1 ) the extent of the infrastructural problems addressed and (2) the magnitude of the participants' developmental needs. Whether service programs can make a major difference to West Virginia's economic future will depend upon maximizing their impact, assuming they can achieve sufficient effectiveness in the first place.

In the past, even when program evaluations showed considerable effort, effectiveness, cost-effectiveness and impact, evaluators often forgot to determine just how these goals were achieved, making it difficult to replicate the program. Thus, it is also important to conduct process evaluations to identify, for example, those subtle but critical characteristics which prove to have a significant effect on success. It cannot be assumed that the results were simply the consequence of program design, especially when so many factors intrude.

Because "success" may be defined in many different ways, it is especially important that the perspectives of the communities involved be taken into account. The evaluator may discover that one group seeks efficiency (calculable in terms of cost per service output units delivered), another seeks performance (ratio of 'success' to 'failure' units) another seeks impact adequacy (ratio of ,success' units to identifiable 'problem' units), and yet another seeks preventive impact (a reduction in potential problem units that would have otherwise required service). Under such circumstances, program evaluation calls for a systemic perspectivism, "a methodology which will allow simultaneous consideration of as many positions as possible" (Ball 1978).

Following this approach, results are reported in terms of each of several definitions of program "success" or "failure." It is conceivable that a particular voluntary service program might have significant impact on, for example, crime prevention without making a significant impact on youth development among the volunteers themselves. For those seeing crime prevention as the goal, such a program would be judged a great success. For those emphasizing youth development, such a program might be judged a major failure, calling for a focus on different sorts of service experience in the future.

Conclusion

There is good reason to believe that the community volunteer service movement can make a significant contribution to West Virginia's economic future. A coordinated effort, focusing on youth development, appropriate selection criteria, and carefully considered programs and tailored supervision, can make a real difference. The fact that these programs' objectives dovetail almost exactly with the newest approaches to economic development models cannot be overemphasized.

In its response to the National and Community Service Act of 1990, West Virginia has already laid a foundation for further efforts. The National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993 offers additional possibilities. Volunteerism is no panacea, but it may prove to be one key ingredient in a program to foster economic development through projects to improve the environment, strengthen education, enhance public safety, and deal with some of West Virginia's most pressing human needs. Citizen input, attention to the volunteers' needs and attitudes, and intensive supervision will be crucial to the outcome of all these programs.

References

Ball, Richard A. 1974. "New Premises for Planning in Appalachia." Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 3:2: 1-12.

Ball, Richard A. 1977. "Equitable Evaluation Through Investigative Sociology." Sociological Focus 10: 1 (January): 1-13.

Ball, Richard A. 1978. "Systemic Perspectivism: A New Basis for Evaluative Research." Sociology and Social Welfare 5:3: 35-47.

Ball, Richard A. 1991 a. Corrections in Context: Policy Options for Control of Intake, Length of Stay and System Capacity in West Virginia.

Morgantown, WV: West Virginia Institute for Public Affairs.

Ball, Richard A. 1991 b. "Juvenile Justice in West Virginia." The West Virginia Public Affairs Reporter 8:1 (Winter): 1-6.

Ballantine, Jeanne. 1989. The Sociology of Education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bayley, D. H. 1988. "Community Policing: A Report from the Devil's Advocate." In Community Policing: Rhetoric or Reality. Eds.

J. R. Greene and Samuel D. Mastrofski. New York: Praeger.

Bell Atlantic Business Research. 1989. West Virginia: The Location for Your "Office of the Future." Charleston, WV: C& P Telephone Company.

Benokraitis, Nijole V. 1993. The Family. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bluestone, Barry. 1990. "The Impact of Schooling and Industrial Restructuring on Recent Trends in Wage Equality in the United States."

American Economic Review 80:2 (May): 303-307.

Bluestone, Barry and Bennett Harrison. 1982. The Deindustrialization of America. New York: Basic Books.

Brisbin, Richard A. and Robert Jay Dilger. 1993. "Citizen Evaluations of Government in West Virginia: The 1992 West Virginia Political Survey."

The West Virginia Public Affairs Reporter 10: 1 (Winter): 13-17.

Buchanan, John H. 1989. "The Value of Community Service Programs." Education Week (April 5): 21.

Clayton, Joseph A., Robert Jay Dilger and Greg Sayre. 1994. "Landfills and West Virginia's Economic Development." In West Virginia in the 1990s:

Opportunities for Economic Progress. Eds. Robert Jay Dilger and Tom Stuart Witt. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University Press.

1992 Commission on the Future of the South. 1992. The Workplan as Adopted March 26, 1992. Research Triangle Park, NC: Southern Growth Policies Board.

Council of State School Officers. 1991. State EducationAgency Guide for the National and Community Service Act of 1990. Washington, DC: Council of

State School Officers.

Culp, Linda. 1991. "West Virginia Service Industries." West Virginia Business and Economic Review. (Spring).

Curry, G. David, Richard A. Ball, Robert J. Fox and Darryl Stone. 1992. WVU National Assessment Survey of AntiGang Law Enforcement Information

Resources. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.

Danzig, Richard and Peter Szanton. 1986. National Service: What Would It Mean? Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

DeFrank, Anthony J. and Allan S. Hammock. 1990. "The Health Care Crisis and Medical Liability in West Virginia." The West Virginia Public Affairs Reporter

7:1 (Winter): 1-10.

Dilger, Robert Jay. 1989. National Intergovernmental Programs. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Dilger, Robert Jay. 1994. "Clean Water and Its Implications for Economic Development in West Virginia." In West Virginia in the 1990s: Opportunities for

Economic Progress. Eds. Robert Jay Dilger and Tom Stuart Witt. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University Press.

Dilger, Robert Jay and Tom Stuart Witt. 1994. West Virginia in the 1990s: Opportunities for Economic Progress. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University

Press.

Dizard, Jan E. and Howard Gadlin. 1990. The Minimal Family. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.

Dryfoos, Joy G. 1990. Adolescents at Risk: Prevalence and Prevention. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ellis, Susan J. and Katherine H. Noyes. 1990. By The People: A History of Americans as Volunteers. Revised Edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Ehrenberg, Ronald G. and Robert S. Smith. 1991. Modern Labor Economics. 4th Edition. New York: Harper Collins.

Family Economics Review. 1989. "Updated Estimates of the Cost of Raising a Child." Family Economics Review 2 (1): 30-31.

Fletcher, Jerald J, Gordon W. McClung and Tim T. Phipps. 1994. "Travel and Tourism in West Virginia's Economy." In West Virginia in the 1990s:

Opportunities for Economic Progress. Eds. Robert Jay Dilger and Tom Stuart Witt. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University Press.

Frederick, Kenneth D. 1986. "Water Resources: Increasing Demand and Scarce Supply." In America's Renewable Resources. Eds. K. D. Frederick and R. A.

Sedo. Washington, DC: Resources for the Future.

Greene, J. R. and Samuel D. Mastrofski. 1988. Community Policing: Rhetoric or Reality. New York: Praeger.

Harr, Milton. 1991. The C.C.C. Camps in West Virginia, 1933 - 1942. Charleston, WV: Trans Allegheny Books.

Hawley, Clifford B. 1994. "Demographic Change and Economic Opportunity." In West Virginia in the 1990s: Opportunities for Economic Progress. Eds.

Robert Jay Dilger and Tom Stuart Witt. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University Press.

James, William. 1910. "The Moral Equivalent of War." McClure's Magazine (August): 463-468.

Janowitz, Morris. 1983. The Reconstruction of Patriotism: Education For Civic Consciousness. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Kain, Edward L. 1990. The Myth of Family Decline: Understanding Families in a World of Rapid Social Change. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

Kloc, Stanley J. 1994. "Small Business and Entrepreneurship in West Virginia: Trends and Strategies." In West Virginia in the 1990s: Opportunities for Economic

Progress. Eds. Robert Jay Dilger and Tom Stuart Witt. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University Press.

Martinelli, David R. and Ronald W. Eck. 1994. "West Virginia's Transportation Infrastructure: Conditions, Trends and Implications for Economic Growth." In West

Virginia in the 1990s: Opportunities for Economic Progress. Eds. Robert Jay Dilger and Tom Stuart Witt. Morgantown, WV: West Virginia

University Press.

McGinnis, Adrian R. 1993, "Initiation of Community Policing." West Virginia Criminal Justice Journal 1: 1: 28-30.

Miringoff, Gary L. 1989. The Index of Social Health of Children and Youth. New York: McGraw Hill.

Moskos, Charles C. 1988. A Call to Civic Service: National Service for Country and Community. New York: The Free Press.

National Governors'Association. 1989. Community Service: A Resource Guide for States. Washington, DC: National Governors' Association.

Olson, Lynn. 1990. "Federal Agencies Sound the Alarm Over the 'School-to-Work' Transition." Education Week (May 23): 1-19.

Oreskes, Michael. 1990. "Profiles of Today's Youths: Many Just Don't Seem to Care." The New York Times (June 28): Al, All.

Renner, Michael G. 1992. "Saving the Earth, Creating Jobs." Worldwatch 5:1 (January- February): 10-18.

Snell, Marilyn B. 1990. "The Purge of Nurture." New Perspectives Quarterly 7:1: 1-2.

Starr, Jerold, G. David Curry and Richard A. Ball. 1991. "The National and Community Service Movement." Annual Meetings of American Sociological Association. Washington, DC, August 1991.

University of Arkansas Division of Business Studies. 1988. Economic Impact of Arkansas Volunteers- 1986 and 1987. Little Rock, AR: Arkansas Center for

Research and Public Policy.

U.S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (AC I R). 1993. 1991 State Fiscal Capacity and Effort. Washington, DC: ACIR.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1990. Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1990. 11 Oth Edition. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1991. Education Attainment in the United States, March 1989 and 1988. Series P-20, no. 451. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

U.S. Women's Bureau. 1989. Employers and Child Care: Benefiting Work and Family. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

West Virginia Department of Education. 1992. West Virginia Comprehensive Service Plan for the National and Community Service Act of 1990.

Charleston, WV: West Virginia Department of Education.

West Virginia Department of Natural Resources. 1982. The Economics of Wildlife in West Virginia: 1975-1980. Elkins, WV: Biometrics Section, Division of

Wildlife.

West Virginia Human Resources Association. 1990. Children in Crisis: State at Risk 1990 Progress Report. Charleston, WV: West Virginia Human Resources

Association.